Nigeria Before the 1914 Amalgamation
Before Nigeria became a single colonial territory, the area now known as Nigeria contained numerous independent and semi-independent political societies. These included the Sokoto Caliphate in much of the north, Kanem-Bornu in the north-east, Yoruba kingdoms in the south-west, the Benin Kingdom in the south, Niger Delta trading states and numerous Igbo, Ibibio, Efik and other communities in the south-east.
British political and commercial influence expanded gradually during the nineteenth century. Lagos was annexed by Britain in 1861 and became an important centre of British administration. During the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, British forces and administrators expanded their control over territories that would later form Nigeria.
The Amalgamation of Nigeria in 1914
On 1 January 1914, Britain formally amalgamated the Northern Protectorate and Southern Nigeria into the Colony and Protectorate of Nigeria. The process was carried out under Governor-General Frederick Lugard.
The amalgamation placed the two territories under one colonial administration. However, important differences in administration, economy, religion and political development continued between Northern and Southern Nigeria.
The decision was influenced by administrative and financial considerations. The amalgamation created the territorial framework of the country that eventually became independent Nigeria.
Colonial Nigeria
During the colonial period, Britain governed Nigeria through a combination of direct administration and indirect rule. In Northern Nigeria, British officials worked extensively through existing emirate structures. In Southern Nigeria, colonial administration interacted with a much wider variety of political systems.
Colonial rule transformed the Nigerian economy. Cash crops such as cocoa, groundnuts, palm produce, cotton and rubber became important exports. Railways, roads and ports were developed to support administration and trade.
Missionary organisations also played an important role in the development of Western education, particularly in Southern Nigeria. Educational and regional differences that developed during this period later influenced Nigerian politics.
The Rise of Nigerian Nationalism
During the twentieth century, educated Nigerians, traditional leaders, journalists, workers and political organisations increasingly demanded greater participation in government.
Figures such as Herbert Macaulay, Nnamdi Azikiwe, Obafemi Awolowo and Ahmadu Bello became important figures in Nigeria's nationalist and constitutional development.
Political organisations including the Nigerian Youth Movement, NCNC, Action Group and Northern People's Congress helped shape the political environment leading to independence.
Constitutional Development
Britain introduced several constitutional reforms during the twentieth century. The Richards Constitution of 1946 increased regional representation, while later reforms expanded elected representation and regional autonomy.
The Macpherson Constitution of 1951 and Lyttleton Constitution of 1954 were particularly important. The 1954 constitutional settlement established a federal structure involving the Northern, Western and Eastern Regions.
Independence and the First Republic
Nigeria became independent on 1 October 1960. Sir Abubakar Tafawa Balewa became Prime Minister while Nnamdi Azikiwe became Governor-General.
On 1 October 1963, Nigeria became a Federal Republic and Nnamdi Azikiwe became the first President.
The First Republic experienced political tensions, including controversy surrounding the 1964 federal election and violence associated with the 1965 Western Region election.
On 15 January 1966, military officers carried out Nigeria's first military coup. Prime Minister Tafawa Balewa and several senior political leaders were killed, ending the First Republic.
Military Rule Begins
Major General Johnson Aguiyi-Ironsi became head of state after the January 1966 coup. His government suspended political institutions and introduced administrative changes.
On 29 July 1966, a counter-coup led largely by northern officers resulted in the death of Aguiyi-Ironsi. Lieutenant Colonel Yakubu Gowon subsequently became head of state.
The Biafra Civil War
Political and ethnic tensions intensified during 1966 and 1967. Large numbers of people moved from Northern Nigeria towards the Eastern Region following violence and insecurity.
On 27 May 1967, the federal government created twelve states from the existing regions. On 30 May 1967, Lieutenant Colonel Chukwuemeka Odumegwu Ojukwu declared the independence of the Republic of Biafra.
The Nigerian Civil War began on 6 July 1967. Federal forces fought Biafran forces until the conflict ended in January 1970.
Ojukwu left Biafra in January 1970 and Major General Philip Effiong subsequently surrendered Biafran forces.
General Yakubu Gowon announced a policy of reconciliation summarized by the phrase No victor, no vanquished.
The Oil Boom
Commercial oil was discovered at Oloibiri in 1956. Petroleum became increasingly important to Nigeria's economy during the 1960s and especially during the oil boom of the 1970s.
Nigeria joined OPEC in 1971. Rising oil revenues allowed the government to invest heavily in infrastructure, universities, roads and public buildings.
However, dependence on petroleum also contributed to economic distortions, corruption, rapid urbanisation and declining relative importance of agriculture.
Murtala Muhammed and the Transition
On 29 July 1975, General Murtala Muhammed replaced Yakubu Gowon following a military coup.
His administration launched major reforms and announced plans to return Nigeria to civilian government.
Murtala Muhammed was assassinated during an attempted coup on 13 February 1976. General Olusegun Obasanjo succeeded him and continued the transition programme.
The 1979 elections brought Shehu Shagari to power and civilian government returned on 1 October 1979.
The Second Republic
The Second Republic lasted from 1979 to 1983. Shehu Shagari became Nigeria's first executive President.
Economic difficulties increased as international oil prices weakened. Political tensions also intensified during the 1983 elections.
On 31 December 1983, Major General Muhammadu Buhari and other military officers overthrew the civilian government.
Buhari Military Government
The Buhari military government introduced the War Against Indiscipline campaign. The administration also pursued anti-corruption measures but restricted civil liberties and imprisoned politicians.
On 27 August 1985, Ibrahim Babangida removed Buhari in a military coup.
The Babangida Era
General Ibrahim Babangida ruled Nigeria from 1985 to 1993. His government introduced the Structural Adjustment Programme in 1986 in response to economic difficulties.
The period also witnessed significant political reforms and a prolonged transition programme towards civilian rule.
The presidential election of 12 June 1993 became one of the most important events of the era. Moshood Abiola appeared to have won the election, but Babangida annulled the result.
The annulment created a major political crisis. Babangida eventually stepped aside and Ernest Shonekan became head of the Interim National Government.
The Abacha Era
On 17 November 1993, General Sani Abacha removed Ernest Shonekan and became head of state.
Abacha's government dissolved democratic institutions and restricted political activity. Opposition figures and activists were arrested.
On 10 November 1995, Ken Saro-Wiwa and eight other Ogoni activists were executed after a controversial trial. Nigeria subsequently faced international condemnation and was suspended from the Commonwealth.
General Sani Abacha died on 8 June 1998. General Abdulsalami Abubakar succeeded him and accelerated Nigeria's transition towards civilian rule.
The Fourth Republic
On 29 May 1999, Olusegun Obasanjo was inaugurated as President, marking the beginning of the Fourth Republic.
Obasanjo served from 1999 to 2007. His government pursued economic reforms, debt restructuring and anti-corruption initiatives.
Umaru Musa Yar'Adua
Umaru Musa Yar'Adua became President in 2007. His administration pursued electoral reform and the Niger Delta amnesty programme.
Yar'Adua became seriously ill and spent an extended period receiving medical treatment abroad. Vice President Goodluck Jonathan eventually became Acting President and later President after Yar'Adua died on 5 May 2010.
Goodluck Jonathan
Goodluck Jonathan became President in 2010 and served until 2015.
His administration faced major security challenges, particularly the Boko Haram insurgency. The kidnapping of 276 schoolgirls from Chibok on 14 April 2014 attracted international attention.
In the 2015 presidential election, Muhammadu Buhari defeated the incumbent Goodluck Jonathan. Jonathan conceded defeat, resulting in a historic peaceful transfer of power between an incumbent president and an opposition candidate.
Muhammadu Buhari as Civilian President
Muhammadu Buhari returned to power in 2015 as a civilian politician.
His administration focused heavily on anti-corruption and security. Nigeria entered recession in 2016 following falling oil prices and foreign-exchange pressures.
The government also faced Boko Haram, ISWAP, kidnapping, banditry and other security challenges.
In October 2020, the #EndSARS protests became a major nationwide movement against police brutality and wider governance concerns.
Buhari won re-election in 2019 and remained President until May 2023.
Bola Ahmed Tinubu
Bola Ahmed Tinubu won the February 2023 presidential election and was inaugurated as President on 29 May 2023.
His administration introduced major economic reforms, including the removal of the petrol subsidy and changes to Nigeria's foreign exchange system.
The reforms were intended to address structural economic problems and reduce government expenditure but also contributed to increased living costs and inflationary pressure.
Creation of States in Nigeria
At independence in 1960, Nigeria consisted primarily of three regions. The Mid-Western Region was created in 1963.
In 1967, Yakubu Gowon replaced the regional structure with twelve states.
Successive governments created additional states until Nigeria reached its present structure of 36 states and the Federal Capital Territory.
Nigeria is also divided into 774 local government areas.
From Lagos to Abuja
Lagos served as Nigeria's colonial and post-independence capital.
The decision to establish Abuja as a new federal capital was announced in 1976. Abuja was selected because of its central location and potential to serve as a more neutral federal capital.
On 12 December 1991, the federal government officially moved the national capital from Lagos to Abuja.
Nigeria's Economic History
At independence, Nigeria's economy depended heavily on agriculture. Cocoa, groundnuts, palm produce, cotton and other agricultural products were important exports.
The discovery of commercial oil at Oloibiri in 1956 changed the country's economic direction. Petroleum eventually became the dominant source of export earnings and government revenue.
Since the 1990s and 2000s, Nigeria's economy has become more diversified, with telecommunications, banking, fintech, entertainment, manufacturing and services playing important roles.
Society and Culture
Nigeria has experienced significant population growth since the early twentieth century.
The country contains hundreds of ethnic and linguistic communities. Hausa, Yoruba and Igbo are among the largest ethnic groups, alongside many other important communities.
Christianity and Islam are the two largest religions, while traditional religious beliefs continue to influence cultural practices in many communities.
Nigeria's global cultural influence has expanded through literature, music, film, fashion and digital media. Nollywood and Afrobeats have become internationally recognised parts of Nigerian culture.
Security Challenges
Nigeria has faced several security challenges since independence. Boko Haram became a major insurgent organisation in the north-east from 2009 onwards, while ISWAP later emerged as another significant armed group.
Kidnapping and banditry have affected several parts of the country, particularly the north-west and north-central regions.
Farmer-herder conflicts have also contributed to violence and displacement in several states.
Democratic Development Since 1999
Nigeria's Fourth Republic is the country's longest uninterrupted period of civilian government.
Presidential elections have been held regularly since 1999, although many elections have generated disputes over electoral conduct, vote counting, violence and institutional independence.
Recent elections have also introduced technologies such as the Biometric Voter Accreditation System, known as BVAS.
Nigeria Today
Nigeria today is a federal democratic republic consisting of 36 states and the Federal Capital Territory.
Abuja is the national capital while Lagos remains the country's largest commercial centre.
The country continues to face challenges involving inflation, unemployment, infrastructure, electricity supply, security, corruption, education and economic inequality.
At the same time, Nigeria remains one of Africa's most influential countries, with major economic, cultural, technological and diplomatic importance.
From the 1914 amalgamation to independence, the civil war, decades of military rule and the democratic era since 1999, Nigeria's history has been shaped by political change, economic transformation, regional diversity and the continuing effort to build a unified nation.
This history provides the foundation for understanding Nigeria's modern political system, states, federal institutions, elections, economy and society.